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Advantages of titanium tube: 1. The specific strength of titanium tube is high. The density of titanium alloy is generally about 4.5g/cm3, only 60% of that of steel. The strength of pure titanium is close to that of ordinary steel. Some high-strength titanium alloys exceed the strength of many alloy structural steels. Therefore, the specific strength (strength/density) of titanium alloy is far greater than that of other metal structural materials, which can produce parts and components with high unit strength, good rigidity and light weight. At present, titanium alloy is used for engine components, framework, skin, fasteners and landing gear of aircraft. 2. The thermal strength of titanium tube is high. The service temperature is several times higher than that of aluminum alloy, and the required strength can still be maintained at medium temperature. The two titanium alloys can work at 450~500 ℃ for a long time. They still have high specific strength in the range of 150 ℃~500 ℃, while the specific strength of aluminum alloy decreases significantly at 150 ℃. The working temperature of titanium alloy can reach 500 ℃, while that of aluminum alloy is below 200 ℃. 3. Titanium tube has good corrosion resistance. The corrosion resistance of titanium alloy is much better than that of stainless steel when it works in humid atmosphere and seawater; The resistance to pitting, acid corrosion and stress corrosion is particularly strong; It has excellent corrosion resistance to alkali, chloride, chlorine organic substances, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, etc. However, titanium has poor corrosion resistance to reducing oxygen and chromate media. 4. Titanium tube has good low-temperature performance. Titanium alloy can still maintain its mechanical properties at low and ultra-low temperatures. Titanium alloys with good low-temperature performance and very low interstitial elements, such as TA7, can maintain certain plasticity at - 253 ℃. Therefore, titanium alloy is also an important low-temperature structural material. 5. Titanium tube has high chemical activity. The chemical activity of titanium is large, and it has strong chemical reaction with O, N, H, CO, CO2, water vapor, ammonia, etc. in the atmosphere. When the carbon content is greater than 0.2%, hard TiC will be formed in titanium alloy; When the temperature is high, the hard surface of TiN will also be formed by the interaction with N; At above 600 ℃, titanium absorbs oxygen to form a hardened layer with high hardness; The embrittlement layer will also be formed when the hydrogen content increases. The chemical affinity of titanium is also large, and it is easy to adhere to the friction surface. 6. Titanium tube has low thermal conductivity and elastic modulus. The thermal conductivity and elastic modulus of titanium are small. The elastic modulus of titanium alloy is about 1/2 of that of steel, so its rigidity is poor and it is easy to deform. It is not suitable to make slender rods and thin-walled parts. During cutting, the rebound amount of the machined surface is large, about 2~3 times of that of stainless steel, resulting in severe friction, adhesion and adhesive wear of the tool flank.

Introduction: Titanium has emerged as a highly valuable material in the field of medical implants and devices. Its unique properties, such as biocompatibility, strength, and corrosion resistance, make it an ideal choice for various applications. One such application is the use of titanium in mesh cages, which are commonly employed in spinal surgeries. This article explores the beneficiary aspects of using titanium in mesh cages and highlights the advancements in 3D printing technology that have revolutionized their production. 1. Titanium's Advantages in Mesh Cages: Titanium offers several advantages when used in mesh cages for spinal surgeries. Firstly, its biocompatibility ensures that the material does not cause any adverse reactions within the body. Secondly, titanium's strength and durability provide excellent support to the spinal column, aiding in the fusion process. Lastly, its corrosion resistance ensures the longevity of the implant, reducing the need for additional surgeries. 2. Types of Titanium Used in Mesh Cages: Various types of titanium alloys are utilized in mesh cages, each offering distinct properties. Some commonly used titanium alloys include Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-6Al-7Nb. These alloys provide a balance between strength, weight, and biocompatibility, making them suitable for mesh cage applications. 3. Advancements in 3D Printing of Titanium Mesh Cages: The advent of 3D printing technology has revolutionized the manufacturing process of titanium mesh cages. Traditional methods involved machining titanium blocks, resulting in wastage of material and limited design possibilities. However, 3D printing allows for the creation of complex geometries, customized designs, and patient-specific implants. This technology enables surgeons to tailor mesh cages to individual patient needs, improving surgical outcomes and reducing recovery time. 4. Conclusion: The use of titanium in mesh cages has proven to be highly beneficial in spinal surgeries. Its biocompatibility, strength, and corrosion resistance make it an ideal material choice. Furthermore, advancements in 3D printing technology have opened up new possibilities for the production of titanium mesh cages, allowing for customized designs and improved patient outcomes. As research and development in this field continue, titanium mesh cages are expected to play a crucial role in enhancing spinal surgeries and patient recovery.

Introduction: Mesh cages are widely used in various industries for applications such as filtration, reinforcement, and containment. The choice of material for mesh cages is crucial to ensure durability, strength, and resistance to environmental factors. Titanium, a versatile metal, has gained significant attention for its exceptional properties when used in mesh cages. This article explores the benefits of using titanium in mesh cages and discusses different types of titanium commonly employed in this application. Benefits of Using Titanium in Mesh Cages: 1. Superior Strength and Durability: Titanium exhibits exceptional strength-to-weight ratio, making it an ideal choice for mesh cages. Its high tensile strength enables the cages to withstand heavy loads and resist deformation, ensuring long-term durability. 2.Corrosion Resistance: One of the most significant advantages of titanium is its excellent corrosion resistance. It is highly resistant to various corrosive environments, including seawater, acidic or alkaline solutions, and industrial chemicals. This property ensures the longevity of mesh cages, making them suitable for outdoor and harsh environments. 3. Lightweight: Titanium is known for its lightweight nature, making it easier to handle and install mesh cages. This property is also particularly beneficial in applications where weight reduction is essential, such as aerospace, automotive, and marine industries. 4. Biocompatibility: In medical and healthcare applications, titanium mesh cages are widely used for bone grafts, reconstructive surgeries, and spinal implants. Titanium's biocompatibility ensures it is well-tolerated by the human body, reducing the risk of rejection or adverse reactions. 5. Types of Titanium Used in Mesh Cages: Commercially Pure Titanium (CP-Ti): CP-Ti is the most common type of titanium used in mesh cages. It possesses excellent corrosion resistance, good formability, and weldability. CP-Ti is suitable for various applications where high strength and corrosion resistance are required. Titanium Alloys: Titanium alloys, such as Ti-6Al-4V (Grade 5), are widely used in mesh cages due to their superior mechanical properties. These alloys offer increased strength, improved heat resistance, and enhanced formability compared to CP-Ti. They are commonly used in demanding applications where high strength-to-weight ratio is crucial. 6. Conclusion: Titanium's exceptional properties, including superior strength, corrosion resistance, lightweight nature, and biocompatibility, make it a highly beneficial material for mesh cages. Its usage in various industries, ranging from filtration to medical applications, has proven its reliability and effectiveness. Whether it is commercially pure titanium or titanium alloys, the versatility of titanium in mesh cages ensures the desired performance and longevity of these structures.

2. Metal Materials Metallic materials are widely used in artificial joints because of their good mechanical properties, ease of processing and stability. The main metal materials include stainless steel, cobalt-based alloys, titanium alloys, and tantalum metals. Titanium alloy Titanium is an important structural metal developed in the 1950s. The first titanium alloy used was the Ti-6Al-4V alloy successfully developed in 1954 in the United States, which became the ace alloy in the titanium alloy industry due to its better heat resistance, strength, plasticity, toughness, formability, weldability, corrosion resistance and biocompatibility. In the 1950s, it was developed as an aero-engine and aircraft body material, and its main application in the industry is characterized by high strength, high plasticity, high toughness and high metal damage tolerance. At present, the domestic standard for Ti-6Al-4V alloy for artificial joints is YY 0117.2-2005. Stainless steel Stainless steel is the first material used in artificial joint prosthesis, has a certain corrosion resistance and mechanical strength, but contains elements such as Ni has a teratogenic effect, not suitable for long-term stay in the body 1, in addition, stainless steel material itself is not biologically active, it is difficult to form a stable and solid bond with bone tissue. Therefore, in the artificial joint materials, stainless steel is gradually replaced by cobalt-based alloys and titanium alloys. In recent years, the clinical use of cobalt-based alloys and titanium alloys as artificial joint prosthesis materials. Compared with stainless steel, the passivation film of cobalt-based alloy is more stable and has better corrosion resistance. Its disadvantages mainly include the leaching of Co and Ni plasma caused by metal friction corrosion, which stimulates the secretion of cytokines 0PG and other substances2 and causes necrosis of bone cells and tissues in vivo, thus leading to complications such as loosening of the patient's joint and sinking of the joint prosthesis. Cobalt-chromium alloy Cobalt-chromium alloy is a hard alloy that is resistant to various types of wear and corrosion as well as high-temperature oxidation. It is commonly referred to as cobalt-chromium-tungsten (molybdenum) alloy or stearic alloy (stearic alloy was invented by American Elwood Hayness in 1907). Cobalt-based alloys are made with cobalt as the main component and contain considerable amounts of nickel, chromium, tungsten and small amounts of molybdenum, niobium, tantalum, titanium, lanthanum and other alloying elements. Cobalt and chromium are the two basic elements of cobalt-based alloys, while the addition of molybdenum gives a finer grain and higher strength after casting or forging. Cobalt-chromium-molybdenum alloys are basically divided into two categories: one is CoCrMo alloys, which are usually cast products, and the other is CoNiCrMo alloys, which are usually (hot) forged for precision machining. Artificial joint products are commonly used as cast CoCrMo alloys, and dental related implants can also be manufactured. At present, the domestic standard for casting CoCrMo alloy is YY 0117.3-2005. Porous tantalum metal materials Porous tantalum material is a new type of orthopedic implant material that has emerged recently. Because of its good histocompatibility, high porosity, high surface friction coefficient and low elastic modulus, it has been recognized as an ideal orthopedic implant material. The pore structure of porous tantalum metal is similar to that of cancellous bone trabeculae, with a three-dimensional connected pore structure, which is very suitable for the long entry of bone tissue; its elastic modulus matches the elastic modulus of bone tissue at the implantation site, avoiding the stress masking effect. Porous tantalum is chemically stable in the body fluid environment and exhibits excellent biocompatibility. The many advantages of porous tantalum metal have led to its increasing interest and widespread use in clinical applications. Image source: Internet Public data shows that the medical device market is growing at a CAGR of 5.6% from 2018-2024 (Source: Firestone Creations). In terms of segmentation, orthopedic medical device sales are $36.5 billion, accounting for 9% of the global medical device share. How does the material selection, product design and biological evaluation of metal orthopedic implants become a pressing challenge today? 3. Ceramic Materials In the medical field, ceramics are used as implant materials not only for artificial joints, but also for oral prosthetics. Among these, ceramic dental implants are a potential market of interest for ceramic material companies worldwide. Ceramic materials are a new type of prosthetic material that emerged after metal and polyethylene. It is widely used because of its good biocompatibility and low wear rate. It is mainly used for acetabular lining, femoral head part or femoral condyle prosthesis. The dishes we use in life are also made of ceramic, but the ceramic material chosen for the joint prosthesis is very different from the ceramic used for dishes. The ceramic used in life is made of clay that is sintered at high temperatures, while the ceramic used in joint prosthesis is made of high purity alumina and zirconia, and the sintering temperature is higher and more strictly controlled. Artificial hip joints, on the other hand, are divided into three categories: ceramic-ceramic, ceramic-polyethylene, and alloy-polyethylene, depending on the material of the ball head and acetabular cup. The main difference between ceramic-ceramic, ceramic-polyethylene and alloy-polyethylene is reflected in the mechanical and biological properties. Special materials and specific processes produce ceramics that are both wear-resistant and hard. The literature reports that hip prostheses made of ceramics wear only 5 microns per year, making them durable and the best choice for young patients. Artificial joint replacement has been hailed as one of the major milestones in the history of orthopedic surgery in the 20th century, and the cornerstone of the creation and development of joint replacement lies in joint prostheses. A joint prosthesis may seem insignificant, but it is the result of the integration of science and technology in many fields such as medicine, metallurgy, materials, chemicals, and mechanics, and is the result of decades of joint efforts between orthopedic surgeons and scientists from different fields. With the development of technology, more and more excellent prosthetic materials will emerge for the benefit of patients, so that patients can get rid of joint diseases.

As a surgical procedure for the treatment of end-stage osteoarthritis and other joint diseases, artificial joint replacement has been widely used in clinical practice with good results, relieving the pain and improving the quality of life for many patients with severe osteoarthrosis. Where did the history of artificial joint replacement begin? In 1890, Gluck first applied ivory to manufacture the mandibular joint; in 1938, Wiles used stainless steel for the acetabulum and femoral head; then Moor carried out artificial femoral joint replacement; in 1940, the Wder brothers used synthetic resin to manufacture artificial joints; in 1951, total hip artificial joint replacement began. 1952, Habowsh used acrylic to fix teeth to fix artificial In 1958, Charnhey made a low-friction artificial joint with a polytetrafluoroethylene acetabulum and a metal femoral head based on the theory of slippery TDRTEFDHFYUHH in a heavy-body environment, and then in 1962, Charnley made a total hip artificial joint with a high-density polyethylene acetabulum and a 22-mm diameter femoral head. In 1962, Charnley formed a total hip artificial joint with a high-density polyethylene acetabulum and a 22-mm diameter femoral head and fixed it with bone cement (methacrylate), with more satisfactory results. Since then, artificial joint replacement has entered a new stage of practical application. So, what are the artificial joint materials used to replace our human joints? An artificial joint, as a human implant, must have the following characteristics: ①Compatible with human tissue, no toxic side effects on the human body and no rejection reactions; ②Be able to combine well with the biological interface and be stable; ③Stable performance, resistant to human microenvironment, not easy to be degraded, electrolyzed and corroded; ④Easy to synthesize and manufacture, and can be mass produced. ⑤ Suitable biomechanical properties, which can be better adapted to human tissue at the implantation site; There are no prosthetic materials available that absolutely meet all of the above conditions, and given this situation, combining materials with different advantages can make up for the lack of a single material. It has become the primary choice of physicians today, but in the process of selecting materials, we need to ensure that the requirements of the physiological environment and joint biomechanics are met as much as possible. There are three main types of artificial joint prosthesis materials in common use today: metallic, polymeric and ceramic materials. 1. Polymer materials 1.1 Polymer materials mainly include: polymethyl methacrylate, ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene and highly cross-linked polyethylene. Polymethyl methacrylate, also known as "bone cement", is mainly used for the fixation of bone cement prosthesis, while UHMWPE and high cross-linked polyethylene are mainly used for the lining of the acetabulum and the spacer of the tibial prosthesis. Joint prosthesis is an expensive implant to be implanted in the human body, but also to be used for many years without damage, many people are considering polyethylene so "low-end" material will not be able to do it? In fact, material scientists and orthopedic surgeons have tried more advanced materials, such as PTFE, but the results were not satisfactory, after continuous screening, polyethylene with excellent resistance to wear and impact has become the best choice. 1.2 However, the polyethylene used for joint prosthesis is still different from the polyethylene used for basins and plastic bags. Artificial joints are implantable prostheses to replace diseased or damaged joints, which must have adequate wear resistance, mechanical properties and oxidation resistance, in addition to biocompatibility requirements. "Since the 90's, high cross-linked polyethylene has been formed by chemical reactions and even high energy rays, supplemented by fine heat treatment, to further increase the wear resistance. 1.3 UHMWPE is widely used as a material for artificial joint replacement because of its own excellent physical and chemical properties. To be continued...

In 400-300 B.C., the Phoenicians used metal wires to restore missing teeth; in China, during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 A.D.), there are records of silver paste fillings, which consisted of silver, mercury and tin, very similar to the modern silver amalgam. The first metal materials widely used in clinical treatment were precious metals such as gold, silver and platinum with good chemical stability and processing properties, but mainly for repair, until the early 20th century, the development of metal materials in biomedical devices became more extensive... Medical tantalum - excellent medical metal material Overview: Modulus of elasticity 186-191 GPa, tensile strength 200-300MPa. Microhardness 120D - 30170MPa; it has good biocompatibility and resistance to physiological corrosion. Advantages: Tantalum implanted in bone can form an osseous bond with the surrounding new bone. Since 1940, when pure tantalum was first used in the field of orthopedics, it has been used in clinical practice for nearly 80 years. When tantalum is implanted in soft tissues, muscles and other tissues can grow normally on the button, without irritation or toxic side effects in human body. It is used as bone plates, cranial plates, bone screws, dental implants, facial prostheses, denture and surgical sutures and stitches. Tantalum's unique surface negativity makes it exceptionally resistant to thrombosis and is used as an intravascular stent and in the human heart. Applications: 1. Tantalum wire Tantalum has good ductility and can be made into fine wires comparable to or even finer than a hair. Tantalum wire as a surgical suture has the advantages of easy sterilization, less irritation, and high resistance to tension, but also has the disadvantage of not being easily tied. Tantalum wire can be used for suturing bone, tendons, fascia, as well as for tension-reducing sutures or for fixing teeth in the mouth, and can be used as sutures for visceral surgery or embedded in artificial eyeballs. Tantalum wires can even replace tendons and nerve fibers. 2. Tantalum sheets Tantalum metal can be made into various shapes and sizes of tantalum sheets, which can be implanted according to the needs of various parts of the body, such as repairing and closing cracks and defects in broken skulls and fractures of limbs. After the artificial ear is made from tantalum sheets and fixed on the head, the skin is then transplanted from the leg. 3. Tantalum stent Tantalum wire can be woven into a mesh balloon-expandable stent. The tantalum stent is clearly visible under X-ray and is very easy to monitor and follow up. Its long-term retention in the body without fracture and corrosion. The flexibility of tantalum is good, so the tantalum wire stent can better adapt to the normal pulsation of the artery and can be released quickly and accurately. 4. Tantalum coating People take advantage of the excellent corrosion resistance of tantalum metal and coat it on the surface of certain medical metal materials to stop the release of toxic elements and improve the biocompatibility of metal materials, while tantalum coating also improves the visibility of the material in the human body. Tantalum coatings improve the osseointegration properties of titanium metals, enhance cell adhesion and promote cell growth. The higher surface energy and better wettability of the tantalum coating improve the interaction between the cells and the implant material. In addition to metallic materials, tantalum can also be coated on the surface of non-metallic materials, such as carbon cages for spinal fusion, where the tantalum coating improves the strength and toughness of the carbon cage to suit the load-bearing capacity of the column and to better meet the requirements of the surgical procedure. In addition, tantalum can also be coated with certain polymers in composites to improve the visibility and biocompatibility of the material.

In recent years, with the rapid development of materials science, medical polymer materials gradually become the most widely used, the largest amount of materials. Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) as a new medical implant materials, with its own excellent characteristics in many medical materials stand out, increasingly used in plastic surgery, cardiovascular, artificial spine and many other fields, currently has the following applications: 1, PEEK materials for medical implants Excellent performance is the closest to the bone material Biocompatibility is the most basic element to measure whether a material is suitable for human implantation, the material must be non-cytotoxic, mutagenic, carcinogenic, and does not cause allergies. Implant-grade PEEK has undergone complete biocompatibility testing in foreign independent testing facilities in strict accordance with ISO 10993. The results show that implant-grade PEEK has excellent biocompatibility without any side effects. The famous Wolfe's Law states that bone grows where it is needed and resorbs where it is not, meaning that bone growth, resorption, and reconstruction are all related to the state of the bone under stress. Because the modulus of elasticity of metal greatly exceeds that of bone, when metal is implanted in the body it takes on most of the mechanical load, reducing the load on bone and creating a stress masking effect, with the consequence of delayed bone healing and, in the long run, bone becomes lax and even degenerates. In contrast, the modulus of elasticity of PEEK is very close to that of bone, and the stresses on bone are not borne entirely by the implant, making the bone healthier. 2, Repair the skull to avoid the embarrassment of cold winters and hot summers Researchers have found that PEEK is the closest clinical cranial repair material to human bone in terms of performance. Compared to commonly used titanium alloys, PEEK is physically close to human bone, with a strong texture and no risk of stress depression; it is well insulated and avoids cold in winter and heat in summer. Although titanium materials have good heat transfer, this is a disadvantage for patients. When patients are affected by the temperature difference between hot and cold outside, there is a change in the cranial cavity environment, which can affect comfort. For example, the excellent thermal conductivity of titanium cranial plates can cause pain and discomfort for patients when they come from a warm room to a cold outdoor area during the winter. PEEK, however, is well insulated and avoids the embarrassing situation of titanium mesh being cold in the winter and hot in the summer. PEEK discards the defects of conventional cranial repair materials such as plexiglass, bone cement, and titanium alloy such as strong rejection, poor shaping, poor thermal insulation, poor comfort, and poor postoperative x-ray permeability, avoiding the discomfort caused by temperature differences; using 3D printing technology to form, it is tightly embedded and perfectly shaped with good histocompatibility; its mechanical properties are close to those of human bone. It is foreseeable that this new material will be the material of choice for skull repair. 3, Repair of spine Reduce complications In recent years, the incidence of lumbar and cervical spine diseases in China has increased year by year and tends to be younger. The number of patients with lumbar spine disease in China has exceeded 200 million, and the number of people suffering from cervical spine is also 200 million. If a patient has degenerative spine disease, the doctor will recommend removing the diseased disc and then implanting a prosthesis called an "intervertebral fusion" to replace it. Currently, the most common intervertebral fusion devices are titanium fusion and PEEK fusion. PEEK fusions are compatible with radiographs and MRIs and have a low modulus of elasticity, avoiding the complications of autografts and the defects of allografts. Modified PEEK is more powerful, utilizing type I collagen adsorption cross-linking to improve the hydrophobicity of the PEEK material surface and cell adhesion and proliferation, and the modified material has better biocompatibility and osseointegration capabilities than unmodified materials. 4, Dental implant accessories for greater patient comfort PEEK is increasingly being used in dentistry because of its excellent chemical stability and resistance to most chemical reagents.PEEK materials are primarily used in dental implant accessories, such as temporary abutments, healing caps, and healing abutments. Compared to commonly used materials such as metal, zirconia and alumina, PEEK requires no sintering and is more precise; it is low density and lightweight, making it comfortable for patients to wear; and its soft texture provides shock absorption for occlusion. In addition to medical implants, PEEK is widely used in medical devices. In short, PEEK has the advantages of wear resistance, corrosion resistance, high temperature resistance, high strength, X-ray transmission \ good biocompatibility and other characteristics. Compared to typical medical materials such as titanium and cobalt-chromium alloys, PEEK offers many additional advantages: (1) lower modulus of elasticity (2) X-ray permeable (3) excellent sterilization properties (4) better biocompatibility (5) adjustable mechanical properties (6) greater design freedom.

The Advantages of CoCrMo Alloy in Medical Field CoCrMo alloy is a widely used material in the manufacture of medical devices. It has advantages such as high strength, high wear resistance, corrosion resistance, and biocompatibility, making it widely used in medical fields such as artificial joints, dentistry, and orthopedics. This article will introduce the advantages of CoCrMo alloy in the medical field. 1. High Strength and High Wear Resistance CoCrMo alloy has high strength and high wear resistance, which can withstand a large amount of force and pressure. This makes it an ideal material for manufacturing artificial joints, bone nails, and other orthopedic instruments. CoCrMo alloy has a high elastic modulus and yield strength, which can be used in the human body for a long time without deformation or fatigue. 2. Corrosion Resistance CoCrMo alloy has excellent corrosion resistance, which can be used in the human body for a long time without being affected by corrosion. This makes it an ideal material for manufacturing artificial joints, dentistry, and other medical devices. CoCrMo alloy can resist corrosion and oxidation in human body fluids, maintaining the stability of its physical and chemical properties. 3. Biocompatibility CoCrMo alloy has good biocompatibility, which can be used in the human body for a long time without causing rejection reactions or other adverse reactions. This makes it an ideal material for manufacturing artificial joints, dentistry, and other medical devices. The biocompatibility of CoCrMo alloy has been widely researched and verified, and it has been proven to be a safe and reliable medical material. In summary, CoCrMo alloy has advantages such as high strength, high wear resistance, corrosion resistance, and biocompatibility, making it widely used in the manufacture of medical devices. With the continuous development of medical technology, the application of CoCrMo alloy in the medical field will become more and more extensive.

Titanium alloy refers to the alloy metal made of titanium and other metals. It was developed in the 1950s and belongs to structural metal. Among them, the most prominent is high-temperature titanium alloy and structural titanium alloy in the aerospace field. It was not until the 1970s that a number of corrosion-resistant titanium alloys were developed. After the 1980s, corrosion-resistant titanium alloys and high-strength titanium alloys were further developed, and titanium alloys began to show their skills in the aerospace field. Due to various characteristics of titanium alloys, titanium alloys have a broad application prospect in the field of new materials. However, with the different types of titanium alloys, the characteristics of titanium alloys are also different. They are characterized by low density, high specific strength, low thermal conductivity, high temperature resistance, low temperature resistance and corrosion resistance. The two most important characteristics are high specific strength and good corrosion resistance. These two outstanding characteristics determine that titanium alloys have a very wide range of applications in the sea, land, air and outer space, including aerospace, conventional weapons, naval vessels and marine engineering, nuclear power and thermal power generation, chemical and petrochemical, metallurgy, construction, transportation, sports equipment and daily necessities. Spacecraft mainly use the high specific strength, corrosion resistance and low temperature resistance of titanium alloy to manufacture various pressure vessels, fuel tanks, fasteners, instrument straps, frames and rocket shells. Titanium alloy plate weldments are also used in artificial earth satellites, lunar modules, manned spacecraft and space shuttles. The preparation of titanium alloy generally involves three steps: heat treatment, cutting, deoxidation and acid cleaning to produce preliminary titanium alloy products, while the melting of titanium alloy to the final product generally involves three steps: sponge titanium preparation, titanium material preparation and titanium material application. The preparation technology of sponge titanium and titanium material is complex and difficult, which is the difficulty and key link of titanium manufacturing. To some extent, sponge titanium and titanium material directly determine the quality of titanium alloy products. From the perspective of the whole industrial chain, the core barrier of titanium alloy is not the upstream resources and the midstream smelting, but the processing of titanium materials. The research and development and manufacturing process of high-end titanium materials are often concentrated in the hands of leading enterprises. At present, vacuum white loss arc melting (VAR) technology is mainly used in the processing of high-end titanium materials. The vacuum white consumption arc melting technology is simply that in the vacuum or inert gas environment, the consumable electrode produced by the induction furnace is heated and melted by the controllable AC arc. This technology has very strict requirements for heat treatment technology and cutting process. At present, only the United States, Russia, Japan and China have complete high-end titanium processing technology.

Titanium and titanium alloys Titanium and titanium alloys have been widely used in aerospace, marine engineering, chemical engineering, metallurgy, medical and other fields due to their high specific strength, good corrosion resistance and high temperature performance. With the development of the world economy and the recognition of titanium in many countries, titanium has been researched and developed in succession and has been applied in many fields. In particular, the rapid development of aerospace, petrochemical and shipbuilding industries has further promoted the R&D and production of titanium materials in various countries. However, due to the production and processing characteristics of titanium material, its production process is complex, its processing flow is long, and its yield is low, so the cost of its finished products has been high for a long time, which greatly limits its use in the civil field. Therefore, the research and development of low-cost titanium alloy production technology has become the focus of current research. Common industrial titanium alloys mainly include ATI425 (Ti-4Al-2.5V-1.5Fe-0.25O), Timetal 62S (Ti-6Al-1.7Fe-0.1Si), GR12 (Ti-0.3Mo-0.8Ni), Timetal LCB (Ti-4.5Fe-6.8Mo-1.5Al), Ti-0.05Pd-0.3Co and other alloys. The target of Timetal 62S is TC4. This alloy uses cheap Fe element to replace the expensive V element in TC4, and can reduce its production cost by 15%~20% compared with TC4 under the condition that its strength and rigidity are basically unchanged; Timetal LCB targets Ti-10-2-3 (Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al), ATI425 targets GR38, and Ti-0.05Pd-0.3Co and GR12 targets Ti-0.2Pd. The above low-cost titanium alloys have been applied in practical production. In China, the Northwest Research Institute of Nonferrous Metals has developed nearly β Type Ti12LC (Ti-4.5Al-Fe-6.8Mo) and near α Type Ti8LC (Ti-6Al-1Mo-1Fe), the performance of these two low-cost titanium alloys is similar to that of TC4 titanium alloy, but the production cost of small size bars can be reduced by about 30% compared with that of TC4 titanium alloy. Beijing Research Institute of Nonferrous Metals has developed a new metastable TC4 titanium alloy using Fe-Cr master alloy instead of expensive V element β Type titanium alloy Ti-3Al-3.7Cr-2.0Fe, its bar strength is equivalent to that of TC4 titanium alloy, and its plasticity is slightly better than that of TC4 titanium alloy. In recent years, Australia has developed Ti-7Mn-Nb alloy with cheap Mn instead of expensive Nb for biomedical material Ti-Nb, and Japan has developed KS Ti-531C (Ti-4.5Al-2.5Cr-1.2Fe-0.1C) with Si, C, Fe and Cr instead of V, and has studied its application in aerospace field. The main idea of these titanium alloy designs is to replace V, Mo, Nb, Ta and other high-priced alloy elements with cheap alloy elements such as Fe, Si, Al, Sn and so on, while ensuring that the alloy properties are basically unchanged, so as to achieve the purpose of reducing the cost of raw materials.

1. Low density, high specific strength: The density of titanium metal in titanium coil is 4.51g/cm3, higher than that of aluminum and lower than that of steel, copper and nickel, and its strength is the largest of the metals. 2. Corrosion resistance: Titanium is a very active metal. Its equilibrium potential is very low and its thermodynamic corrosion tendency in the medium is very high. But in fact, titanium is very stable in oxidizing, neutral and weak reducing media and has corrosion resistance. 3. Good heat resistance: The new titanium alloy can be used for a long time at 600 ℃ or higher. 4. Good low temperature resistance: Low-temperature titanium alloys, such as titanium alloys TA7 (Ti-5 Al-2.5Sn), TC 4 (Ti-6 Al-4V) and Ti-2.5Zr-1.5Mo, have their strength increasing with the decrease of temperature, but their plasticity has little change. It maintains good ductility and toughness at low temperature of - 196-253 ℃, and is spared from cold brittleness of metal. It is an ideal material for cryogenic containers, storage tanks and other equipment. 5. Good damping resistance: Compared with steel and copper, the vibration attenuation time of titanium metal is longer after mechanical vibration and electrical vibration. This property of titanium can be used as a tuning fork, a vibration element of an academic pulverizer, and a vibration film of an audio speaker. 6. No magnetism and dirt: Titanium in titanium coil is a non-magnetic metal, which will not be magnetized in a large magnetic field. It is pollution-free, has good compatibility with human tissues and blood, and is used by academia. 7. Tensile strength is close to its yield strength: This property of titanium indicates that its yield strength ratio (tensile strength/yield strength) is higher, indicating that the plastic deformation of titanium metal in the forming process is poor. Because of the large ratio of yield strength to elastic modulus of titanium, the springback of titanium in the forming process becomes larger. 8. Good heat exchange performance: Although the thermal conductivity of titanium metal is lower than that of carbon steel and copper, its wall thickness can be greatly reduced due to its excellent corrosion resistance. The heat transfer mode between the surface and the steam is dropwise condensation, which reduces the heat group. If the surface is cooled, the heat group can also be reduced. Since there is no scaling on the surface, the heat transfer performance of titanium can be significantly increased. 9. Low elastic modulus: The elastic modulus of titanium is 106.4 GMPa at room temperature, which is 57% of that of steel. 10. Suction performance: Titanium in titanium coil is a very active metal, which can react with many elements and compounds at high temperature. Titanium gettering mainly refers to the reaction with carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen at high temperature.

Titanium is a very corrosion-resistant metal. However, the thermodynamic data of titanium shows that titanium is a very thermodynamic unstable metal. If titanium can be dissolved to generate Ti2+, its standard electrode potential is very low (-1.63V), and its surface is always covered with an oxide film. In this way, the stable potential of titanium is stable and positive. For example, the stable potential of titanium in seawater at 25 ℃ is about+0.09V. In chemistry manuals and textbooks, we can get the standard electrode potential corresponding to a series of titanium electrode reactions. It is worth pointing out that in fact, these data are not directly measured, but often can only be calculated from thermodynamic data. Moreover, due to the different sources of data, it is not surprising that several different electrode reactions and different data may appear at the same time. The electrode potential data of the electrode reaction of titanium shows that its surface is very active and is usually covered with the oxide film naturally formed in the air. Therefore, the excellent corrosion resistance of titanium stems from the fact that there is always a stable, strong adhesion and protective oxide film on the titanium surface. In fact, the stability of this natural oxide film determines the corrosion resistance of titanium. Theoretically, the P/B ratio of the protective oxide film must be greater than 1. If it is less than 1, the oxide film cannot completely cover the metal surface, so it cannot play a protective role. If the ratio is too large, the compressive stress in the oxide film will increase correspondingly, which is easy to cause the oxide film to crack and will not play a protective role. The P/B ratio of titanium varies from 1 to 2.5 according to the composition and structure of the oxide film. From this basic point, the oxide film of titanium can have better protective performance. When the surface of titanium is exposed to the atmosphere or water solution, it will automatically generate a new oxide film immediately, for example, the thickness of the oxide film is about 1 2 ~ 1.6 nm, and thickens with time, naturally thickens to 5 nm after 70 days, and gradually increases to 8 ~ 9 nm after 545 days. The artificially enhanced oxidation conditions (such as heating, using oxidant or anodic oxidation) can accelerate the growth of the oxide film on the titanium surface and obtain a relatively thick oxide film, thus improving the corrosion resistance of titanium. Therefore, the oxide film formed by anodic oxidation and thermal oxidation will significantly improve the corrosion resistance of titanium. The oxide film of titanium (including thermal oxide film or anodic oxide film) is usually not a single structure, and the composition and structure of its oxide vary with the formation conditions. Generally, the interface between the oxide film and the environment may be TiO2, while the interface between the oxide film and the metal may be dominated by TiO2. In the middle, there may be transition layers with different valence states, even non-chemical equivalent oxides, which means that the oxide film of titanium has a multi-layer structure. As for the formation process of this oxide film, it can not be simply understood as the direct reaction between titanium and oxygen (or oxygen in the air). Many researchers have proposed various mechanisms. The former Soviet Union workers believed that the hydride was first generated, and then the oxide film was formed on the hydride.

Chinese standard 1. Chinese national standard GB/T2524-2007 Sponge titanium GB/T3620-2007 Grade and chemical composition of titanium and titanium alloy GB/T15073-1994 Cast titanium and titanium alloy grades and chemical composition GB/T3621-2007 Titanium and titanium alloy plate Titanium plate for plate heat exchanger Titanium and titanium alloy strip and foil GB/T3623-2007 Titanium and Titanium Alloy Wire GB/T3624-2007 Titanium and titanium alloy pipes GB/T3625-2007 Titanium and titanium alloy tubes for heat exchangers and condensers GB/T2965-2007 Titanium and titanium alloy bars Titanium and titanium alloy cakes and rings GB/T8546-1987 Titanium - stainless steel composite plate GB/T8547-1987 Ti-steel composite plate Titanium and titanium alloy castings GB/T5168-1985 Test method for macrostructure of two-phase titanium alloy GB/T6611-2008 Terminology of titanium and titanium alloys GB/T8755-2008 Metallographic atlas of titanium and titanium alloy terminology GB/T12769-2003 Ti-Cu Composite Bar GB/T13810-2007 Titanium and titanium alloy processed materials for surgical implants GB/T12417-1990 General specification for surgical metal implants GB/T4698.1-4698.25-1996 Methods for chemical analysis of sponge titanium, titanium and titanium alloys GB/T5193-2007 Methods for ultrasonic inspection of titanium and titanium alloy processed products GB/T12969.1-1991 Ultrasonic inspection method for titanium and titanium alloy pipes GB/T12969.2-1991 Eddy current inspection method for titanium and titanium alloy pipes GB/T13149-1991 Titanium and titanium alloys conform to the technical requirements for steel plate welding Sintered titanium metal filter elements and materials GB/T8180-2007 Packaging, Marking, Transportation and Storage of Titanium and Titanium Alloy Processed Products GB/T6612-1986 TA7 Titanium Alloy Plate for Important Purposes TC4 titanium alloy plate for important purposes GB/T1216-1992TA5 Titanium alloy welding technical conditions 2. Chinese National Military Standard GJB2218-1994 Specification for titanium and titanium alloy bars and forgings for aviation GJB2219-1994 Specification for titanium and titanium alloy bars (wires) for fasteners GJB2220-1994 Specification for titanium alloy cake and ring blank for aeroengine GJB2505-1995 Specification for titanium and titanium alloy plate and strip for aviation GJB2744-1996 Specification for titanium and titanium alloy bars, free forgings and die forgings for aviation GJB2896-1996 Specification for titanium and titanium alloy investment precision castings GJB2921-1997 Specification for TC4 titanium alloy sheet for superplastic forming GJB3763A-2004 Heat treatment of titanium and titanium alloy GJB391-1987 TC4 Titanium Alloy Forged Cake for Aerospace Industry GJB493-1988 TC4 titanium alloy bars for aeroengine blades GJB494-1988 TC11 titanium alloy bars for aeroengine blades GJB495-1988 TA7-D titanium alloy bars for ultra-low temperature GJB943-1900 TA5-A titanium alloy forgings for submarines GJB944-1900TA5-A titanium alloy plate GJB1169-1991 Specification for titanium alloy rings for aerospace GJB1205-1991TB2-1 Technical Conditions for Titanium Alloy Rivets GJB1538-1992 Specification for TC4 titanium alloy bars for aircraft structural parts

American Standard 1. ASTM Standards ASTMB229-2001 sponge titanium ASTMB265-2005 Titanium and titanium alloy strip, sheet and plate ASTMB337-1995 Titanium and titanium alloy seamless and welded tubes (already B861-2002 Titanium and titanium alloy seamless pipe, B862-2002 titanium and titanium alloy Welded pipe instead) ASTMB338-2005a Titanium and titanium alloy condenser and heat exchanger Seamless and welded pipes ASTMB348-2005 Titanium and titanium alloy bars and billets ASTMB363-2004 Non-alloy titanium and titanium alloy seamless and welded pipe fittings ASTMB367-2004 Titanium and titanium alloy castings ASTMB861-2002 Titanium and titanium alloy seamless pipe ASTMB862-2002 Titanium and Titanium Alloy Welded Pipe ASTMB381-2005 Titanium and titanium alloy forgings ASTMF67-2000 Pure titanium for surgical implants ASTMF136-2002a Ti-6Al-4VELI processed material for surgical implants ASTMF620-2002 for surgical implants α+β Phase titanium alloy forgings ASTMF1108-2002 Ti-6Al-4V castings for surgical implants ASTMF1295-2001 Ti-6Al-7Nb processed material for surgical implants ASTMF1341-1999 pure titanium wire ASTMF1472-2002a Ti-6Al-4V processed material for surgical implants ASTMF1713-1996 Ti-13Nb-13Zr processed material for surgical implants ASTMF1813-2001 Ti-12Mo-6Zr-2Fe processed material for surgical implants ASTMF2063-2000 for medical devices and surgical implants Shape memory alloy processing material 2. American Society of Mechanical Engineers ASME Section VIII: Chapter I Pressure Vessel (Basic Rules) American Aerospace Material Technical Standard AMS490-2001 titanium sheet, strip and plate (annealing state) (380Mpa) AMS4901-2002 titanium sheet, strip and plate (annealing state) (485Mpa) AMS4902-2001 titanium sheet, strip and plate (annealing state) (275Mpa) AMS4907-2001 ultra-low gap element grade Ti-6Al-4V alloy sheet Strip and sheet (annealing state) AMS4910-2003Ti-5Al-2.5Sn alloy sheet, strip and medium plate (annealing state) AMS4911-003Ti-6Al-4V sheet, strip and medium plate (annealing state) AMS4921-2004 Titanium bars, forgings and rings (annealed) (485Mpa) AMS4924-2002 ultra-low clearance element grade Ti-5Al-2.5Sn alloy bars Forgings and rings (annealed) AMS4926-2001Ti-5Al-2.5Sn bar and ring (annealed) (760Mpa) AMS4928-2001Ti-6Al-4V alloy bar, forging and ring (Annealed state) (825Mpa) AMS4941-2003 Titanium Welded Pipe AMS4942-2001 seamless titanium tube (annealed) (275Mpa) AMS4930-2001 ultra-low clearance element grade Ti-6Al-4V alloy bar Forgings and rings (annealed) AMS4951-2003 industrial pure titanium welding wire AMS4954-2003Ti-6Al-4V alloy welding wire AMS4965-2002Ti-6Al-4V alloy bars, forgings and rings (solid solution and stabilization treatment) AMS4966-2003Ti-5Al-2.5Sn forging AMS4967-2001 Heat-treatable Ti-6Al-4V alloy bars and forgings And rings (annealed) ASM4972-2003 Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V alloy rod and ring (solid solution and stabilization treatment) ASM4973-2002Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V titanium alloy forgings (solid solution and stabilization treatment) ASM4975-2003Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo alloy rod and ring (solid solution and stabilization treatment) ASM4983-2002Ti-10V-2F-3Al forgings (solution treatment and aging) ASM4985-2003 Ti-6Al-4V alloy forgings cast by paraffin or graphite tamping method ASM4991-2002 Ti-6Al-4V alloy precision forgings (annealing state) ASM2380-2003 Quality Titanium Alloy Approval and Control 3. US Military Standards MIL-T-9046-1999 Titanium and titanium alloy sheet, strip and plate MIL-T-9047-2005 Titanium and titanium alloy bars and forgings MIL-R-81588-1986 Titanium and titanium alloy round rods and wires MIL-F-83142-2000 Titanium and titanium alloy forgings (high quality) MIL-T-46077 Titanium alloy weldable armor plate MIL-T-13405 titanium powder MIL-T-46035-1989 High strength titanium alloy, deformed material MIL-T-81556-1996 Titanium and titanium alloy round bars, bars Extruded parts with special shape surface MIL-T-81200 Heat Treatment of Titanium and Titanium Alloys

Human implants are special functional materials closely related to human life and health. Compared with other metal materials, titanium and titanium alloys have six advantages: 1. Light weight; 2. Low elastic modulus; 3. No magnetism; 4. Non-toxicity; 5. Corrosion resistance; 6. High strength and good toughness. Titanium and titanium alloys have excellent use characteristics and are recognized as excellent metal materials in the biomedical field by the world. Compared with the use of stainless steel, cobalt-based alloys and other metal materials, titanium and titanium alloys have great application advantages and great development space. According to relevant data, the use of metal materials as human implants is gradually increasing. After 1990, only the United States has used more than 2 million metal parts for human implantation every year, of which the medullary joints and femoral parts account for 2.5%; The supply and demand of fracture external fixation products and internal fixation products are booming in the European market, mainly in France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom. In 2004, the market value reached US $280 million, of which the internal fixation products accounted for 85.7%. In the past 10 years, the market growth rate of biomedical materials and products has been maintained at 20% - 25%. It is predicted that in the next 10 to 15 years, the industrialization of medical devices, including biomedical materials, will develop rapidly, and will reach economies of scale and become a pillar industry of the world economy. The advantages of medical titanium and titanium alloy materials have been recognized by the medical community and accepted by more and more patients. Considering the factors of war, sports trauma and the improvement of people's living standards, the first choice of titanium and titanium alloy as human implants has a large growth space, which is bound to become a new economic growth point in the development of titanium applications.

Biomedical titanium alloy materials refer to a class of functional structural materials specifically used in biomedical engineering, mainly used in the production and manufacture of surgical implants, orthopedic instruments and other products. According to the professional standards of surgical implants and orthopedic instruments, titanium alloy materials can be classified into the category of "metal materials" in "materials for surgical implants", while titanium alloy materials can serve as cardiovascular, bone and joint, bone joint, spine, orthopedic instruments, cardiac pacemakers and defibrillators, cochlear implants Raw materials for nerve stimulators and other implant products. Biomedical titanium alloys can be divided into α Type I titanium alloy (such as pure titanium series) α+β Type I titanium alloy (such as Ti6Al4V) and β Type II titanium alloys (such as Ti12Mo6Zr2Fe, etc.) and TiNi shape memory titanium alloys have the characteristics of small specific gravity, high specific strength, low elastic modulus, corrosion resistance, easy machining and good biocompatibility compared with medical stainless steel and cobalt-based alloys.